Intro to Contemporary Rhetorical Perspectives

1900-1915: Foment among the English Dept. Troops--The split

Prior to and at this time, "speech" departments did not exist in America. Colonial era schools had maintained an interest in Rhetoric both oral and written, primarily in "Classics" departments. As the school system developed many Classics departments fragmented among History, Foreign Language, and English units. Although some of the scholars/ teachers interested in Rhetoric stayed within Classics departments, many moved to English departments where, for a time, they shared common interests in oral and written discourse. Over time, however, the interest shifted, primarily, to the written mode and the study of rhetoric became subsumed within English Departments as "rhetoric and composition." English Departments further problematized this situation with their own conflicts and splits. Not only did those interested in teaching oral communication have to fight to be heard over the "traditional" preference for writing, rhetoric and composition was seen as less important than the study of great literature (a situation which still plagues many modern Departments of English). Teachers interested in speech were NOT in a good situation. They were, however, interested in teaching about oral communication, and so they "revolted" and split from the English Departments, forming Departments of Speech. Leaders in this movement included prominent Midwest professors at Illinois, Iowa, and Harvard (among others).

A: Initial/formative areas of interest on the part of early speech teachers and programs

1) oral speech in public speaking, debate, speech disorders, theatre, speech instruction, persuasion,
ethics
2) integration with classical tradition: interest in the history and literature of rhetorical theory.
3) attempts to integrate with new social sciences: not only as indicated by the work of Campbell, but as encouraged by the rapid and dramatic development of the social sciences in America.

B: Forces for continued change and fracture

Changing departments by no means solved all of the problems. Almost immediately, fractures endemic to Speech Departments themselves began to come to the fore.

1) social sciences & war influences:

the early founders were interested in the "new" psychologies and other social sciences. Due to Campbell's influence (and the influence of other "Epistemologists"), rhetorical historians and theorists were initially motivated to study social scientific features of communication events. However, as the social sciences developed into a purely quantitative and experimental mode, "humanities"-driven rhetorical theory and "science" driven communication studies began to diverge.

Further, governments and military establishments funded communication research as part of the war efforts. These activities led to the development of the modern field of communication studies. The politics, pragmatics, and technologies of these efforts also favored the social scientific.

Additionally, speech/communication departments began to take up study of professional activities in communication. Where, previously, professional research was limited to the domain of public speaking (so entailed politics and the law, primarily), "modern" research included not only theoretic research in professional, but also "applied" professional research.

These and other factors further encouraged sub-disciplinary diversity in speech communication studies.

2) continued splits in English as well--for instance,

As noted above, such diversity was not exclusive to speech/.com in the area of relative interest in rhetoric. Similar splits occured in English, as between the literature vs composition camps.

C: Rhetoric Reborn: Forces in the Rhetorical Turn

1) European philosophy and linguistic philosophy

(Nietzsche,Wittgenstein, Heidegger, Vico/Grassi, Habermas, Foucault, and a large group of others who I'll not detail here)

One of the primary descriptions of the modern philosphic age focuses on its interest in the "linguistic" or "rhetorical" turn. Many continental/European 20th century philosophers foreground the importance of linguistic action in their thought systems. Many also formulated and articulated rhetorical theories (or forms thereof). Contemporary rhetorical scholars have become increasingly interested in, and influence by, these thought systems.

2) European legal philosophy

Particularly as exemplified by the work of Toulmin and Perelman, European writers have taken an interest in the relationships between judicial systems and practical argumentation in everyday life. American scholars of argumentation and debate, strong currents in the history and practices of academic speech communication, have taken particularly strong interests in this work.

3) European textual hermeneutics

European philosophical and theological work with religious texts (textual interpretation) has led to a broad range of developments in "meaning interpretation." This work, represented by the writing of Husserl, Schutz, and others, has led to the development of philosophies which undergird all of qualitative/field-oriented research; work which is now seen as offering ways to do social science without acceptance of the positivist (and anti-rhetorical) tradition of Cartesian logic.

4) European/English (mass media) critical studies

Scholars interested in the sociology of everyday life, particularly those in England (Stuart Hall, Raymond Williams and others), have combined critical studies of mass media (its economic/organizational basese) with continental philosophy as ways to understand the rhetorical properties of otherwise taken-for-granted media practices. These scholars encourage theory, criticism, and practical action which moves media studies away from the practical interests of owners and operators toward social consciousness and change. Grossberg and other Americans carry on this tradition. McLuhan and Postman present "Americanized" versions of mass media critical theory.

5) American literary philosophy

Kenneth Burke, Wayne Booth and others have kept contemporary English scholars well within the rhetorical loop by extending literary critical techniques outside the limitations of exclusive interest in "high-culture printed texts."

6) American rhetorical theory

In addition to Kenneth Burke's work, a large number of American scholars, most identifying with Speech Communication, have developed numerous hetorical theories and approachesWeaver, Black, Bitzer, Fisher, Bormann., and many others). The National Communication Association (formerly Speech Communcation Association) and its member regional and affiliated organizations sponsor upwards of 30 academic journals dedicated to communication studies, many of which often foreground rhetorical theory issues.

7) American rhetorical subdisciplines
i. public address

"historical" study of speeches, speakers, events with a focus on communication practices in the public sphere

ii. rhetorical theory

conceptual development of thought systems about the operation of, and philosophy behind, communication action.

iii. Rhet. crit. & communication analysis

critical application of rhetorical theory to communication in action. A wedding of public address with rhetorical theory via a critical modality.

iv. cultural criticism

European hermaneutic and critical studies perspective brought to bear on communication action, particularly on on the rhetorical phenomena of everyday life. Hyde and Wander (and others) often produce outstanding examples of this work.

SOME CONTEMPORARY (AMERICAN OR OF PARTICULAR INTEREST TO AMERICANS) RHETORICAL PERSPECTIVES

1) Rhetoric as epistemic (Scott, Brummett)
2) Rhetoric and argumentation (Brockreide, Toulman, Perelman, Sillars)

3) Rhetoric and performance (including cultural studies) (Conquergood, Burke, Goffman)
4) Rhetoric of inquiry/science (Ehninger, Simons, Lyne, Nelson, Megill)

5) Narrative Paradigm (Fisher)
6) Fantasy Theme/Symbolic Convergence Theory (Bormann)
7) "Other" Voices and cultural challenges (Feminism, Asian, African, African-American, Native American, South American/Latino)
8) Ontological/Forms of Life (Conversational, ethnographic, interpersonal)
9) Historical (esp. revisionist) (Enos; Foss, Foss, & Trapp; Foss)
10) Movement and genre work (Campbell, Ja mieson)
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