M.L. Clark in Bryant et. al (eds)

After his execution, Cicero's head and hands were exhibited at the Senate rostrum, with a hairpin through this tongue at the insistence of the wife of the emperor as a warning about the trouble citizens can get into by being powerful speakers.

He began practice as advocate in 81, attained the consulship in 63--stood for internal peace and the republican constitution. Had a chance to join Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus in a combination which might have been strong enough to rule all of Rome. He sided with Pompey and was eventually executed by Octavian, Caesar's heir. Perhaps the most outstanding combination of outstanding speaking, political leadership, and authorship of rhetorical texts in history.

Cicero tried to unite the philosopher, statesman, and orator in one man in order to synthesize philosophy, politics, and rhetoric. He saw philosophy as an acquisition, as something one learns, rather than merely as something one does. Politics is life, and politics is about power. Cicero appealed to the will rather than merely the intellect. Assertions must be attractive, beautiful, and powerful. Rhetoric and philosophy are as much one as are content and form: joined forever. Such that even Plato used a powerful rhetoric in order to get across his philosophic ideals. Metaphysics are slippery. Instead, what is crucial is consensus gentium: the general agreement of the different races.

Some of his works and their features:

De Invenione (ca. 86): immature exposition of the three main divisions of ancient rhetoric. More like school-boys' notes than a full treatment. Cicero later denounced this work, but it survives.

De Oratore (55 BC): Precepts of the schools, but maintains that they are not enough--must include education in philosophy, law, and history: student should master wide knowledge. Deplores the breach between philosophy and rhetoric and advances the old ideal of the philosopher- orator-statesman.

Foreshadowed the 5 W's as stasis (on sit, quid sit, quali sit) fact definition, motive 3 types of speeches 5 canons 6 parts of the speech theory models and practice: the art of doing Perfect practice makes perfect Insisted that pathos be used to strengthen logical argument (esp. sympathy and pity) on disposition purpose of the introduction to get attention, orient toward theme, and conciliate (get good will) Use of refutatio: speakers must refute early and often. Audience analysis as part of disposition: the speaker must adjust, artfully, the speech. on elocutio speaker's purpose determines stylistic choices. speakers should be facile in all three styles Advocated the use, always, of strong scholarship in preparation for speaking and writing. Speeches receive needed polish from extensive writing and re-writing.

Brutus (46 BC): history of Roman oratory in dialogue form ". . . one who understood how to amplify his case, and from a question restricted to a particular person and time, transfer it to universals " the praxis between philosophical and rhetorical invention by examining conjecture, definition, and consequence. His self-description--and of an "ideal" orator: a thorough knowledge of literature, a grounding in philosophy, legal expertise, a storehouse of history, the capacity to tie up an opponent and reduce the jury to laughter, the ability to lay down general principles applicable to the particular case, entertaining digressions, the power of rousing the emotions of anger and pity, the faculty of directing his intellect to the point immediately essential. It is the humanitas of the speeches that turns them from an ephemeral tour de force into a lasting possession.

Orator (46 BC): reiterates the ideas of De Oratore and defends Cicero's style from his critics (plan, grand, and middle!!) Detailed analysis of prose rhythm and periodic structure.

1) Good sense: propriety. Nothing in life is harder than to perceive what is appropriate.

2) The plain style is for argument, the middle for charm, the passionate for persuasion.

3) Speakers must calculate and blend the three-part mixture of the proper style, depending on the subject and the personalities of speaker and listeners.