Rhetoric in Rome

Links to sites about Ancient Rome, Fordham (Paul Halsall)

Hermagoras of Temnos: premier rhetorician of this period.

We have reconstruction of his lost work. He developed the "stasis" system such that all Latin systems, including those of Cicero and Quintilian, can be seen as reliant on him.

1. Conjecture: (as to the event) accused's motive accused's character signs and evidence in the act

2. Definition

3. Quality plea of justification (no wrong admitted) counter proposition (wrong . . . but) counter plea (benefit rendered) countercharge (he deserved what happened to him) shifting (of blame ) plea for leniency.

4. Objection (to trial on procedural grounds).

This approach to judicial rhetoric became a hallmark of Roman treatments.

Rhetorica Ad Herennium: Unknown writer around 90BC

The oldest complete Latin rhetorical text. Detailed presentation and treatment of the five canons. Once attributed to Cicero; was written by someone with very similar training to his--such that by looking at this and his works, we know a LOT about what was taught in the Roman system of education. This work was ignored in ancient times, but was used in standard treatments beginning around the 4th century and was used for more than a thousand years!!! Its treatment of style was used even longer-- entirely through the Renaissance. Read along with Cicero's De Oratore and De Inventione one can extract a thorough sense of that which was held to be important for rhetorical practice in the roman empire and in the 1000 years which followed the fall of Rome.

The Greek rhetoricians became of lessor importance as Athens fell. Initially, the Romans were ambivalent to receiving Greek "wisdom," so much so that they twice expelled Greek philosophers and rhetoricians from Rome (161 and 91 BC). Eventually, and off-and-on, the Greeks were allowed to return. Further, Roman teachers were free to travel to Athens, and often did, returning with rhetoric. By Cicero's time (106-43 BC) education in Rhetoric was the hallmark distinction in Italy, such that Professor Ochs of Iowa writes that: "All of a Roman's preliminary education pointed the student toward the art, discipline, science, and craft of one subject--rhetoric." (91, Synoptics)

From Chapter V, Ijsseling: Rhetoric and Philosophy in Rome In Greece, the practice of the art had ceased to be important in public so had retreated to the schools--but there--had become firmly entrenched. The Greek teachers were brought to Rome, so the Roman schools took on the Rhetorical flavor. Further, the Romans recognized that their political system required the oral presentation of matters of state, such that rhetorical training was seen as crucial.

Clark: The Roman "systems" of education Chapter V: Imitation Mimesis: not plagiarism, copying, or fair use. Rather, careful observation of the behavior of the masters which fosters an appreciation for the proper attitude and approach. Apprenticeship through observation and application. Whom to Imitate ? Writers and speakers. The best models. The old and the modern: but only those who are best, not merely because they are old or new. Pay close attention to those particular persons of note; but do not get overly attached to one model. How to Imitate from the Ad Herennium: "Imitation impels us to employ a studious method to be similar to someone in speaking." 1) carefully analyze the model so as to explain how the author of the model achieved the excellence there. The teacher normally did this analysis with professional accuracy, thereby illustrating, for the student, how the model was made to be excellent and how a lesser usage might have worked less well. 2) assign the students exercises which find them composing sentences which practice the forms illustrated in the model and analysis above. The students imitate the excellent aspect, using their own materials as instances. 3) orally criticize discourse, and produce analysis and example through the living word embodied in the lessen. This is what Plato is up to in the Phaedrus and the Symposium. Here, he criticizes a faulty model and urges us to admire and emulate a superior model. 4) analytical and appreciative lectures (prelection) in which student efforts are discussed and criticized orally in class. 5) Practice of the imitation by (1) paraphrase (2) translation and (3) learning by heart.