UK glossary of rhetorical terms with
examples
Due to the strong treatment accorded style in the historic literature, there have been times when "rhetoric" has been taken as very closely associated with style, almost to the point of treating the two as synonymous.
Let's look briefly at the first: What are the features of effective word choice (electio)? broad vocabulary accurate vocabulary (anti-barbarism) good judgment which reflects the inventional aspect of the speaker How developed? READ, READ, READ, READ: the language was correct which was vouched for by the Best Authors of the Best Period. (Hirsch's point in Cultural Literacy; former Sec. of Ed. Bennett's point in the Stanford Gen Ed. requirement controversy). Keep reference sources handy and use them often Set out to learn new words and usages What are the features of effective organizational choices? accepted grammatical forms play a role: effective speech must usually attain at least minimal levels of grammatical competence proper choice of the best way to say something, given myriad of possible choices: making the words chosen effective under the circumstances ability to analyze the situation to identify the rules of the language game being played there
avoid incorrect use of single words (barbarisms) avoid incorrect faults in grammatical agreement of words in a sentence (solecisms) derive that which is correct from the study of the development of word meanings and of their application; from the study of antiquity and usages in of words in the old days; from the authority of the best authors; and from the best current usage (the consensus of the educated).
Advice from Aristotle as to what to do: use current and ordinary words introduce metaphors drawn from kindred and similar things use specific rather than general words Aristotle and Quintilian as to what to avoid: ambiguous and vague words overly long suspensions of thought through misuse of digression redundancy the use of obsolete words the use of "local" variations overcondensation over using newly coined words
Correct clarity is not enough to distinguish the speaker. Elegance and brilliance are also required. For the speaker not only courts the approval of the learned with stout weapons, but also courts the applause of the multitude with dazzling weapons. Further, appropriate embellishment lead toward the winning of cases, and MOST IMPORTANTLY, comments favorably as to the uniqueness of the individual mind and the good judgment of the speaker. Embellishment must not distract in a "show." Rather, it must highlight and empower ideas. Good embellishment is like wood stain which blends into the very nature of the whole; rather than as gaudy paint which is applied thickly so as to cover over. Particularly, good embellishment should highlight the figurative essence of language and should contribute to rhythmical sentence movement.
an implied comparison between two things of unlike nature that yet have something in common (On the final examination, several students went down in flames)
an explicit comparison between two things of unlike nature that yet have something in common (He had a posture like a question-mark) Synecdoche: the part stands for the whole genus for species (vessel for ship) species for genus (bread for food) part for whole (sail for ship) matter for what is made from it (silver for money)
substitution of some attributive or suggestive word for what is actually meant ("Who is the Son of Man?" Jesus said to them, "The light is with you for a little longer. Walk while you have the light lest the darkness overtake you")
epithet of a person instead of his name (I spent the morning in BR 102 talking to the Big Guy) Onomatopoeia: use of words whose sound echos the sense (Over the cobbles he clattered and clashed in the dark innyard)
inexact use of a like and kindred word in place of the precise and proper one (the long wisdom in the man) Allegory: extended metaphor which says one thing and means another (Plato's allegory of the cave)
substitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name or of a proper name for a quality associated with the name (The Rocket signed a big contract last week)
transposition of words for effect (the guns big, for, the big guns)
exaggerated terms (his eloquence would split rocks) (A few not mentioned in Clark)
various sorts of play on words antanaclasis--repetition of a word in two senses (learn craft so you won't have to earn a living by craft paronomasia--like sounding/different meaning words (It was a foul act to steal my fowl)
-uses a word understood differently in relation to two words it modifies (He lost his hat and temper)
substitution of one part of speech for another (the thunder would not peace at my bidding)
human qualities/characteristics to animals or inanimate objects (the ground thirsts for rain)
using a word in a way opposite to its literal meaning (For Brutus is an honourable man; so are they all, all honourable men)
joins two, contradictory, terms (sweet pain)
a "new turn" in the conception of ideas
question which seeks to assert rather than to inquire ( How long, Catiline, will you abuse our patience?)
forestalls objections (If you will bear with me a moment . . . )
speaker pretends to be at a loss (It is hard to imagine how to address this difficult question).
speaker asks the advice of others, thereby appearing to think less of his/her own knowledge (If my learned opponent could help me with this)
Simulation of passion to arouse the emotions of the audience (I cannot express the depth of suffering in my soul)
impersonation of characters (and we can imagine President Reagan's response to Ollie's plight, "the poor guy" he must have thought)
seeks to divert from the issue (let us put aside, for the moment, the matter of right and wrong, and turn to the question of motive)
vivid word picture (there I stood, watching this wondrous scene unfold before me . . . )
a more full development than in the trope of something contrary top what the speaker wishes to be understood (I want to tell you the story of a patriot, the story of how Ollie North came to shred documents, lie to Congress, break the laws of the nation . . .)
breaks off the sentence, but only after the audience knows what will follow (If Richard Nixon had know what would . . . well, suffice to say he may have acted differently)
Perhaps an "evil" laugh . . .reminds one of someone one knows.....
(Columbo used to do this--Oh, that reminds me
intimation of something latent and dangerous (As you know, we don't discuss students' grades but you can imagine that Coach X has good reason to be worried over next year's team)
verbal patterns which depart in ingenious ways from the patterns of everyday speech.
similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases or clauses (He tried to make the law equitable, precise, and comprehensive)
juxtaposition of contrasting ideas--often in parallel structure. (Many things difficult to design prove easy to perform)
arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in order of increasing importance (Let a man acknowledge obligations to his family, his country, and his God.)
insertion of a unit which interrupts the flow (He tried--who could do more?--to restrain the fury of the mob)
placing side-by-side two co-ordinate elements, the second which serves as an explanation or modification of the first (John Morgan, the president of the Sons of the Republic, could not be reached by phone).
deliberate omission of a word or phrase which are readily implied by context (And he to England shall along with you)
repetition of initial or medial consonants in two or more adjacent words (After life's fitful fever he sleeps well)
repetition of similar vowel sounds, preceded and followed by different consonants, in the stressed syllables of adjacent words (An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king)
repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses (I have a dream someday)
repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses (When I was a child, I spoke like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child)
repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order (ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country)
iteration of a thought by piling up different words of similar significance (the bull fought, railed, bucked, lifted, sailed, arched his back, thrust his shoulders, left his feet and . . . )
Language should be appropriate to the speaker (repute, ability, place in life), the audience (Size, age, disposition), and the subject (type of speech, particulars of the case). It should express emotion, character, and correspond to the subject. In each of these areas, it must be appropriate to the occasion and its constraints and goals.
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